More Effective C++ | Item 11: Prevent exceptions from leaving destructors Back to Item 10: Prevent resource leaks in constructors Continue to Item 12: Understand how throwing an exception differs from passing a parameter or calling a virtual function Item 11: Prevent exceptions from leaving destructors. There are two situations in which a destructor is called. The first is when an object is destroyed under "normal" conditions, e.g., when it goes out of scope or is explicitly deleted. The second is when an object is destroyed by the exception-handling mechanism during the stack-unwinding part of exception propagation. That being the case, an exception may or may not be active when a destructor is invoked. Regrettably, there is no way to distinguish between these conditions from inside a destructor.4 As a result, you must write your destructors under the conservative assumption that an exception is active, because if control leaves a destructor due to an exception while another exception is active, C++ calls the terminate function. That function does just what its name suggests: it terminates execution of your program. Furthermore, it terminates it immediately; not even local objects are destroyed. As an example, consider a Session class for monitoring on-line computer sessions, i.e., things that happen from the time you log in through the time you log out. Each Session object notes the date and time of its creation and destruction: class Session { public: Session(); ~Session(); ... private: static void logCreation(Session *objAddr); static void logDestruction(Session *objAddr); }; The functions logCreation and logDestruction are used to record object creations and destructions, respectively. We might therefore expect that we could code Session's destructor like this: Session::~Session() { logDestruction(this); } This looks fine, but consider what would happen if logDestruction throws an exception. The exception would not be caught in Session's destructor, so it would be propagated to the caller of that destructor. But if the destructor was itself being called because some other exception had been thrown, the terminate function would automatically be invoked, and that would stop your program dead in its tracks. In many cases, this is not what you'll want to have happen. It may be unfortunate that the Session object's destruction can't be logged, it might even be a major inconvenience, but is it really so horrific a prospect that the program can't continue running? If not, you'll have to prevent the exception thrown by logDestruction from propagating out of Session's destructor. The only way to do that is by using try and catch blocks. A naive attempt might look like this, Session::~Session() { try { logDestruction(this); } catch (...) { cerr << "Unable to log destruction of Session object " << "at address " << this << ".\n"; } } but this is probably no safer than our original code. If one of the calls to operator<< in the catch block results in an exception being thrown, we're back where we started, with an exception leaving the Session destructor. We could always put a try block inside the catch block, but that seems a bit extreme. Instead, we'll just forget about logging Session destructions if logDestruction throws an exception: Session::~Session() { try { logDestruction(this); } catch (...) { } } The catch block appears to do nothing, but appearances can be deceiving. That block prevents exceptions thrown from logDestruction from propagating beyond Session's destructor. That's all it needs to do. We can now rest easy knowing that if a Session object is destroyed as part of stack unwinding, terminate will not be called. There is a second reason why it's bad practice to allow exceptions to propagate out of destructors. If an exception is thrown from a destructor and is not caught there, that destructor won't run to completion. (It will stop at the point where the exception is thrown.) If the destructor doesn't run to completion, it won't do everything it's supposed to do. For example, consider a modified version of the Session class where the creation of a session starts a database transaction and the termination of a session ends that transaction: Session::Session() // to keep things simple, { // this ctor handles no // exceptions logCreation(this); startTransaction(); // start DB transaction } Session::~Session() { logDestruction(this); endTransaction(); // end DB transaction } Here, if logDestruction throws an exception, the transaction started in the Session constructor will never be ended. In this case, we might be able to reorder the function calls in Session's destructor to eliminate the problem, but if endTransaction might throw an exception, we've no choice but to revert to try and catch blocks. We thus find ourselves with two good reasons for keeping exceptions from propagating out of destructors. First, it prevents terminate from being called during the stack-unwinding part of exception propagation. Second, it helps ensure that destructors always accomplish everything they are supposed to accomplish. Each argument is convincing in its own right, but together, the case is ironclad. (If you're still not convinced, turn to Herb Sutter's article; in particular, to the section entitled, "Destructors That Throw and Why They're Evil.) Back to Item 10: Prevent resource leaks in constructors Continue to Item 12: Understand how throwing an exception differs from passing a parameter or calling a virtual function 4 Now there is. In July 1995, the ISO/ANSI standardization committee for C++ added a function, uncaught_exception, that returns true if an exception is active and has not yet been caught. Return